The global economic crisis of 2008 was precipitated by a housing market crash,
thus highlighting the destabilizing influence of the property cycle upon the wider
economy. This timely book by a world authority explores why cycles occur and how they
affect the behaviour of real estate markets. The central argument put forward is that
growth and instability are inextricably linked, and that building investment acts both as
a key driver of growth and as the source of the most volatile cyclical fluctuations in an
economy. 
The role of building cycles in both economic growth and urban development is explored
through a theoretical review and a comparative historical analysis of UK and US national
data stretching back to the start of the nineteenth century, together with a case study of
the development of London since the start of the eighteenth century. 
A simulation model of the building cycle is presented and tested using data for the
City of London office market. The analysis is then broadened to examine the operation of
property cycles in global investment markets during the post-war period, focussing on
their contribution to the diffusion of innovation, the accumulation of wealth and the
propagation of market instability. 
Building Cycles: growth & instability concludes by synthesizing the main
themes into a theoretical framework, which can guide our understanding of the operation
and impact of building cycles on the modern economy. 
Postgraduate students on courses in property and in urban development as well as
professional property researchers, urban economists and planners will find this a
stimulating read – demanding but accessible. 
Table of Contents
 
Preface 
Abbreviations used in the text 
1 Introduction: A Historical Approach 
The idea of cyclical growth 
A historical perspective 
Historical examples 
Imperial Rome 
Tudor and Stuart London 
An illustrative building cycle: London (1714–1900) 
The structure of the book 
2 Growth and Cycles: The Economic Debate 
The underlying theme 
The growth story 
The classical economists 
The neoclassical revolution 
Technology and growth 
Keynes 
The neoclassical growth model 
Modern growth theory 
Historical dependence 
Historical perspectives on business cycles 
Pioneering studies 
Measuring trend and cycle 
A family of cycles 
Long waves 
Business cycle theory 
Impulse and propagation: Multiplier–accelerator models 
Non-linear models 
Rational expectations 
New Classical theory 
New Keynesian theory 
Summary: Theories of growth and cycles 
3 The Nature of Building Cycles 
A long and violent cycle 
Historical building cycle research 
The first wave of empirical studies 
Theoretical perspectives 
The post-war empirical tradition 
Three key studies 
Modern property cycle research 
Long cycles: Fact or artifact? 
New perspectives and established traditions 
viii Contents 
The formation of market expectations 
The integration of real estate and capital markets 
Globalization and speculative bubbles 
Towards a satisfactory theory of the building cycle 
What we know about building cycles 
A conceptual model of the building cycle 
4 Building Investment and Economic Growth 
Buildings as means of production 
Investment and technical progress 
Building versus equipment capital 
Cyclical growth 
Building investment as driver of growth 
Building investment and UK (1855–2005) 
A growth model with building capital 
The trajectory of US growth (1929–2005) 
Building investment as generator of cycles 
The identification of economic cycles 
UKinvestment cycles (1855–2005) 
USinvestment cycles (1901–2005) 
Appendix: The growth model 
5 Building Investment and Urban Development 
Urban innovation and accumulation 
The city in history 
Urban agglomeration 
The growth of cities 
Transport and suburbanization 
A comparison of UK and US urban development cycles 
The data 
Structural models 
Growth trajectories 
Long cycles 
Cycle phasing 
Explanatory variables 
Cycle histories 
Variations in growth 
The transport-building cycle 
Turning points 
A UK building cycle chronology (1785–2005) 
Long cycles and major cycles 
The first industrial revolution (1785–1856) 
The second industrial revolution (1856–88) 
The age of electricity (1888–1918) 
Inter-war turbulence (1918–44) 
The post-war consumer boom (1944–81) 
The computer age (1981–2008?) 
The London building cycle (1714–2005) 
Middlesex deeds (1714–1900) 
London house-building (1856–2005) 
A London building cycle chronology 
6 Case Study: The City of London Office Market 
The development of the city economy 
City of capital 
The City in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries 
The Victorian and Edwardian City 
The inter-war City 
The post-war City 
The growth trajectory of the City economy (1970–2005) 
The City office-building cycle 
Modelling the cycle 
Cycle turning points 
The cycle chronology 
Victorian and Edwardian cycles (1866–1914) 
Inter-war cycles (1921–35) 
Early post-war cycles (1955–79) 
The last two cycles (1979–2005) 
Vintages of City office stock 
Locational clusters 
Building size 
Redevelopment and obsolescence 
Rent formation 
Occupier profiles 
7 A Simulation Model of the Building Cycle 
Real estate models 
Stock adjustment models 
Rent adjustment models 
Multi-equation models 
Specification of the model 
Underlying assumptions 
Model structure 
Determinants of model behaviour 
Model simulations 
Equilibrium and displacement 
Cycle transmission 
Damped and explosive cycles 
Different construction lags 
Floor and ceiling constraints 
Persistent under- or over-supply 
Alternative rent adjustment processes 
Rent elastic occupier demand 
Elastic depreciation 
Business cycle in demand 
Modelling the City of London office market 
Take-up and occupier demand 
Vacancy change 
Rent adjustment 
Development supply 
Building completions 
8 Property Cycles in Global Investment Markets 
Instability and growth in real estate investment 
The crash of 2008 
The property cycle and the business cycle 
Property as an investment medium 
The post-war property cycle in the United Kingdom and United States 
A model of the national property cycle 
The housing market 
The industrial and commercial property market 
The interaction of occupier and investment markets 
The globalization of the property cycle 
The growth of the transnational investment market 
Global cities, global cycle 
The determinants of market behaviour 
Some stylized facts about the global office cycle 
The global diffusion of property innovation 
The rise of the skyscraper 
The spread of the shopping centre 
Into the twenty-first century 
Appendix: An error correction model of the property cycle 
9 Understanding the Building Cycle 
Building cycles and economic growth 
Cyclical growth 
Technological revolutions 
Historical dependence 
Growth and technical progress 
Building investment and productivity growth 
Technical progress in construction technology 
Building cycles as driver of growth 
Propagation of the building cycle 
The trajectory of building investment 
Impulse and propagation in cycle generation 
A circular transmission process 
Determinants of cyclical behaviour 
A family of building cycles 
The rhythm of post-war cycles 
Building cycles and urban development 
The urban development cycle 
Urban growth and agglomeration 
Innovation and accumulation in urban development 
A self-reinforcing process of metropolitan growth 
The transport-building cycle 
Transport investment and suburbanization 
The urban office economy 
Integration of real estate and capital markets 
Property as an investment medium 
The contradiction between investor and occupier demand 
The cyclical movement of real estate values 
Contents xi 
The intensification of the commercial building cycle 
The property cycle and the business cycle 
Speculative boom–bust cycles 
Globalization of the building cycle 
The growth of the transnational investment market 
The international convergence of cycles 
The global office market 
The global office cycle 
The global diffusion of property innovation 
Interactive innovation in retailing 
Into the twenty-first century 
Appendix A Building Trend and Cycle Analysis 
Appendix B The Building Cycle Model 
References 
Index 
448 pages, Hardcover
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